Dental caries, commonly known as tooth decay, is a chronic and progressive disease that results from the destruction of tooth structure by acid-producing bacteria present in dental plaque. It is one of the most prevalent oral health conditions worldwide, affecting children, adolescents, adults, and the elderly. Dental caries develops when bacteria metabolize sugars and fermentable carbohydrates from food and beverages, producing acids that gradually demineralize the tooth enamel and underlying dentin. Without timely intervention, this process leads to cavitation, infection, pain, and eventual tooth loss.

In its earliest stages, dental caries may not cause noticeable symptoms, which is why regular dental examinations are essential for early detection. As the disease progresses, patients may experience tooth sensitivity to hot, cold, or sweet foods, visible discoloration or pits on the tooth surface, discomfort while chewing, or persistent toothache. Advanced decay can reach the pulp of the tooth, causing inflammation and infection of the nerve, which often presents as severe pain and swelling.

Several factors contribute to the development of dental caries. Poor oral hygiene practices allow plaque to accumulate on tooth surfaces, while frequent consumption of sugary or acidic foods increases acid production in the mouth. Reduced saliva flow, which normally helps neutralize acids and wash away bacteria, further increases risk. Medical conditions, medications, smoking, and inadequate fluoride exposure also play an important role. In children, prolonged bottle-feeding with sweetened liquids and inconsistent brushing are common contributors.

Dental caries is not just an oral problem; untreated decay can lead to broader health consequences. Bacterial infection may spread beyond the tooth, causing dental abscesses, facial swelling, and in rare cases, systemic infection. In children, dental caries can affect nutrition, speech development, school attendance, and self-confidence. In adults, tooth loss from advanced decay can impair chewing efficiency, alter facial structure, and impact overall quality of life.

Management of dental caries depends on the extent of damage. Early-stage caries may be reversed or stabilized through preventive measures such as fluoride treatments, remineralization therapy, dietary modification, and improved oral hygiene. Moderate decay typically requires restorative treatment, including dental fillings, to remove infected tissue and restore tooth structure. Advanced cases may necessitate crowns or root canal therapy to preserve the tooth, while severely compromised teeth may require extraction.

Modern dentistry strongly emphasizes prevention and early intervention. Routine dental check-ups, professional cleanings, fluoride application, dental sealants, and patient education are essential in reducing caries risk. With timely diagnosis and appropriate care, dental caries can be effectively managed, preserving natural teeth and maintaining long-term oral health.